Notes
Outline
Slide 1
Disclaimer
Table of Contents
Preface
Why This Tutorial?
Notes and References
CHAPTER 1
Applications and Requirements
Electronics Applications of Quartz Crystals
Frequency Control Device Market
Navigation
Commercial Two-way Radio
Digital Processing of Analog Signals
Digital Network Synchronization
Phase Noise in PLL and PSK Systems
Utility Fault Location
Space Exploration
Military Requirements
Impacts of Oscillator Technology Improvements
Spread Spectrum Systems
Clock for Very Fast Frequency Hopping Radio
Clocks and Frequency Hopping C
3
Systems
Identification-Friend-Or-Foe (IFF)
Effect of Noise in Doppler Radar System
Bistatic Radar
Doppler Shifts
CHAPTER 2
Quartz Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillator
Oscillation
Oscillation and Stability
Tunability and Stability
Oscillator Acronyms
Crystal Oscillator Categories
Crystal Oscillator Categories
Hierarchy of Oscillators
Oscillator Circuit Types
OCXO Block Diagram
Oscillator Instabilities - General Expression
Instabilities due to Sustaining Circuit
Oscillator Instabilities - Tuned Circuits
Oscillator Instabilities - Circuit Noise
Oscillator Instabilities - External Load
Oscillator Outputs
Silicon Resonator & Oscillator
Resonator Self-Temperature Sensing
Thermometric Beat Frequency Generation
Microcomputer Compensated Crystal Oscillator
(MCXO)
MCXO Frequency Summing Method
MCXO - Pulse Deletion Method
MCXO - TCXO Resonator Comparison
Opto-Electronic Oscillator (OEO)
CHAPTER 3
Quartz Crystal Resonators
Why Quartz?
The Piezoelectric Effect
The Piezoelectric Effect in Quartz
Modes of Motion
(Click on the mode names to see animation.)
Motion Of A Thickness Shear Crystal
Resonator Vibration Amplitude Distribution
Resonant Vibrations of a Quartz Plate
Overtone Response of a Quartz Crystal
Unwanted Modes vs. Temperature
Mathematical Description of a Quartz Resonator
Mathematical Description - Continued
Infinite Plate Thickness Shear Resonator
Quartz is Highly Anisotropic
Zero Temperature Coefficient Quartz Cuts
Comparison of SC and AT-cuts
Mode Spectrograph of an SC-cut
SC- cut f vs. T for b-mode and c-mode
B and C Modes Of A Thickness Shear Crystal
Singly Rotated and Doubly Rotated Cuts’
Vibrational Displacements
Resistance vs. Electrode Thickness
Resonator Packaging
Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent Circuit of a Resonator
Crystal Oscillator f vs. T Compensation
Resonator Reactance vs. Frequency
Equivalent Circuit Parameter Relationships
What is Q and Why is it Important?
Decay Time, Linewidth, and Q
Factors that Determine Resonator Q
Resonator Fabrication Steps
X-ray Orientation of Crystal Plates
Contamination Control
Crystal Enclosure Contamination
What is an “f-squared”?
Milestones in Quartz Technology
Quartz Resonators for Wristwatches
Why 32,768 Hz?
Quartz Tuning Fork
Watch Crystal
Lateral Field Resonator
Electrodeless (BVA) Resonator
CHAPTER 4
Oscillator Stability
The Units of Stability in Perspective
Accuracy, Precision, and Stability
Influences on Oscillator Frequency
Idealized Frequency-Time-Influence Behavior
Aging and Short-Term Stability
Aging Mechanisms
Typical Aging Behaviors
Stresses on a Quartz Resonator Plate
Thermal Expansion Coefficients of Quartz
Force-Frequency Coefficient
Strains Due To Mounting Clips
Strains Due To Bonding Cements
Mounting Force Induced Frequency Change
Bonding Strains Induced Frequency Changes
Bending Force vs. Frequency Change
Short Term Instability (Noise)
Instantaneous Output Voltage of an Oscillator
Impacts of Oscillator Noise
Time Domain - Frequency Domain
Causes of Short Term Instabilities
Short-Term Stability Measures
Allan Deviation
Why
s
y
(
t
)?
Frequency Noise and
s
y
(
t
)
Time Domain Stability
Power Law Dependence of
s
y
(
t
)
Pictures of Noise
Spectral Densities
Mixer Functions
Phase Detector
Phase Noise Measurement
Frequency - Phase - Time Relationships
S
f
(f) to SSB Power Ratio Relationship
S
f
(f), S
v
(f) and L (f)
Types of Phase Noise
Noise in Crystal Oscillators
Low-Noise SAW and BAW Multiplied to 10 GHz
(in a nonvibrating environment)
Low-Noise SAW and BAW Multiplied to 10 GHz
(in a vibrating environment)
Effects of Frequency Multiplication
TCXO Noise
Quartz Wristwatch Accuracy vs. Temperature
Frequency vs. Temperature Characteristics
Resonator f vs. T Determining Factors
Frequency-Temperature vs. Angle-of-Cut, AT-cut
Desired f vs. T of SC-cut Resonator
for OCXO Applications
OCXO Oven’s Effect on Stability
Oven Stability Limits
Warmup of AT- and SC-cut Resonators
TCXO Thermal Hysteresis
Apparent Hysteresis
OCXO Retrace
TCXO Trim Effect
Why the Trim Effect?
Effects of Load Capacitance on f vs. T
Effects of Harmonics on f vs. T
Amplitude - Frequency Effect
Frequency vs. Drive Level
Drive Level vs. Resistance
Second Level of Drive Effect
Activity Dips
Frequency Jumps
Acceleration vs. Frequency Change
Acceleration Is Everywhere
Acceleration Affects “Everything”
2-g Tipover Test
(
D
f vs. attitude about three axes)
Sinusoidal Vibration Modulated Frequency
Acceleration Sensitivity Vector
Vibration-Induced Allan Deviation Degradation
Vibration-Induced Phase Excursion
Vibration-Induced Sidebands
Vibration-Induced Sidebands
After Frequency Multiplication
Sine Vibration-Induced Phase Noise
Random Vibration-Induced Phase Noise
Random-Vibration-Induced Phase Noise
Acceleration Sensitivity vs. Vibration Frequency
Acceleration Sensitivity of Quartz Resonators
Phase Noise Degradation Due to Vibration
Coherent Radar Probability of Detection
Vibration Isolation
Vibration Compensation
Vibration Sensitivity Measurement System
Shock
Radiation-Induced Frequency Shifts
Effects of Repeated Radiations
Radiation Induced
D
f vs. Dose and Quartz Type
Annealing of Radiation Induced f Changes
Transient
D
f After a Pulse of
g
Radiation
Effects of Flash X-rays on R
S
Frequency Change due to Neutrons
Neutron Damage
Summary - Steady-State Radiation Results
Summary - Pulse Irradiation Results
Summary - Neutron Irradiation Results
Other Effects on Stability
Interactions Among Influences
CHAPTER 5
Quartz Material Properties
Hydrothermal Growth of Quartz
Deeply Dissolved Quartz Sphere
Etching & Chemical Polishing
Left-Handed and Right-Handed Quartz
The Quartz Lattice
Quartz Properties’ Effects on Device Properties
Ions in Quartz - Simplified Model
Aluminum Associated Defects
Sweeping
Quartz Quality Indicators
Infrared Absorption of Quartz
Infrared Absorption Coefficient
Quartz Twinning
Twinning - Axial Relationships
Quartz Lattice and Twinning
Quartz Inversion
Phase Diagram of Silica (SiO
2
)
Internal Friction (i.e., the Q) of Quartz
Langasite and Its Isomorphs
CHAPTER 6
Atomic Frequency Standards*
Precision Frequency Standards
Atomic Frequency Standard Basic Concepts
Hydrogen-Like Atoms
Atomic Frequency Standard*
Block Diagram
Generalized Microwave Atomic Resonator
Atomic Resonator Concepts
Rubidium Cell Frequency Standard
Rubidium Cell Frequency Standard
Cs Hyperfine Energy Levels
Cesium-Beam Frequency Standard
Cesium-Beam Frequency Standard
Atomic Hydrogen Energy Levels
Passive H-Maser Schematic Diagram
Laser Cooling of Atoms
Cesium Fountain
Atomic Resonator Instabilities
Noise in Atomic Frequency Standards
Short-Term Stability of a Cs Standard
Short-Term Stability of a Rb Standard
Acceleration Sensitivity of Atomic Standards
Atomic Standard Acceleration Effects
Magnetic Field Sensitivities of Atomic Clocks
Crystal’s Influences on Atomic Standard
Optically Pumped Cs Standard
Rubidium - Crystal Oscillator (RbXO)
RbXO Principle of Operation
Rubidium Crystal Oscillator
CHAPTER 7
Oscillator Comparisons and
Specifications
Oscillator Comparison
Clock Accuracy vs. Power Requirement*
Clock Accuracy vs. Power Requirement*
Battery Life vs. Oscillator Power
Short Term Stability Ranges of Various Frequency Standards
Phase Instabilities of Various Frequency Standards
Weaknesses and Wearout Mechanisms
Why Do Crystal Oscillators Fail?
Oscillator Selection Considerations
Crystal Oscillator Specification: MIL-PRF-55310
CHAPTER 8
Time and Timekeeping
What Is Time?
Dictionary Definition of “Time”
The Second
Frequency and Time
Typical Clock System
Evolution of Clock Technologies
Progress in Timekeeping
Clock Errors
Frequency Error vs. Time Error
Clock Error vs. Resynchronization Interval
Time Error vs. Elapsed Time
Synchronization, Syntonization
On Using Time for Clock Rate Calibration
Calibration With a 1 pps Reference
Time Transfer Methods
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS
Oscillator’s Impact on GPS
Time Scales
Clock Ensembles and Time Scales
Relativistic Time
Relativistic Time Effects
Relativistic Time Corrections
Some Useful Relationships
One Pulse-Per-Second Timing Signal
(MIL-STD-188-115)
BCD Time Code
(MIL-STD-188-115)
Time and Frequency Subsystem
The MIFTTI Subsystem
MIFTTI = Modular Intelligent Frequency, Time and Time Interval
"Time" Quotations
Units of Measurement Having Special Names
in the International System of Units (SI)
Units of Measurement Having Special Names in the SI Units,
NOT Needing Standard Uncertainty in SI Average Frequency
CHAPTER 9
Related Devices and Application
Discrete-Resonator Crystal Filter
A Typical Six-pole Narrow-band Filter
Monolithic Crystal Filters
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Devices
Quartz Bulk-Wave Resonator Sensors
Tuning Fork Resonator Sensors
Dual Mode SC-cut Sensors
Separation of Mass and Temperature Effects
Dual-Mode Pressure Sensor
Sensor Uncertainty (“Limit of Detection”)
Sensor Stability in the Time Domain
CHAPTER 10
Proceedings Ordering Information, Standards, Website, and Index
IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium
PROCEEDINGS ORDERING INFORMATION
Specifications And Standards Relating To Frequency Control - 1
Specifications And Standards Relating To Frequency Control - 2
Specifications And Standards Relating To Frequency Control - 3
Specifications And Standards Relating To Frequency Control - 4
IEEE Frequency Control Website
IEEE Electronic Library
Notes
